I was commissioned by the Frederick Douglass Memorial and Historical Association (www.frederickdouglassmha.org) to lecture on the topic: Frederick Douglass in the Eras of Hip-Hop. The Association was enacted by the United States Congress in the year 1900 to preserve the memory and legacy of Frederick Douglass, and my lecture took place in Washington, DC on the grounds where the honorable and noble statesman lived from 1874 until he died in 1895.

Prior to the lecture, I visited the Frederick Douglass House so that I could reap his spiritual and rhetorical energy, putting me in position to best articulate his 19th century point of view to a 21st century audience. The Xennials, Millennials, and Generations Z and Alpha would likely be more familiar with Hip-Hop culture than with the rhetorical genius, abolitionist, civic educator, and former enslaved. I imagined, however, that the Silent and Baby Boomer audience would be able to finish my sentences pertaining to the legend, and just might recognize familiar nuances in my Black oratorical style of social movement messaging. In any event, I was prepared to connect the diverse audiences.

I had the important task to discuss Frederick Douglass and his legacy, and to maintain my posit that significant elements continue to live in the eras of Hip-Hop culture. My mission was to show ways that Douglass’ fight for an inclusive American democracy aligns with a popular culture that preserves the rhetorical tenets that he demonstrated and advocated for during his lifetime. For purposes of this essay, I operationally define rhetoric as the command and exhibition of carefully constructed and/or intuitive verbal, nonverbal, visual, and spiritual language. Rhetoric is a tool used to influence, persuade, and inform audiences for building a movement, consensus, and supporting a point of view.

My lecture began by addressing the African roots of Douglass and selected eras of Hip-Hop which span from the early 1970s to the present. It was important to show their connection of origin to indigenous African roots – roots embedded within what scholars describe as nine interrelated African-centered dimensions. The dimensions are “rooted in the nature of the Black culture, which in turn is rooted in, or based on, an African worldview” (Nobles, 1985, p. 65). They manifest in Black culture globally and across time. Each dimension is prominent in the rhetorical language of appeals (e.g., ethical, logical, emotional, agitational, shock) used by Douglass and in the eras of Hip-Hop. The dimensions include Spirituality, Harmony, Movement, Verve, Affect, Communalism, Expressive Individualism, Orality, and Social Time Perspective. I aligned the dimensions with Hip-Hop culture in my early writings (Hicks Harper, 1987, 1993). They are further discussed as Hip-Hop Root Elements (Hicks Harper & Offiong, 2020) and then as dimensions within my Hip-Hop Development Theory for Positive Engagement (Hicks Harper, 2024; Hicks Harper and Emdin, 2022; Levy, I. et. al, 2021).

This essay provides context and then associates the rhetorical symbolisms of purpose, power, and passion to the times of Douglass and Hip-Hop. It initially addresses the life of Frederick Douglass and the eras of Hip-Hop by comparing their beginnings. I then examine Hip-Hop artists and feature the leader of the group Public Enemy, Carlton Douglas Ridenhour (also known as Chuck D), as a 20th century abolitionist alongside Douglass’ 19th century abolitionist movement. The rhetoric exemplified in Hip-Hop song titles and interpreted as slave narratives is also presented. I conclude with the importance of reinforcing the wisdoms and rhetorical symbolisms of Frederick Douglass congruent with Hip-Hop as a tool to inform and better the lives of Black people throughout the diaspora.

Frederick Douglass and the Eras of Hip-Hop Culture

Hip-Hop and the life and legacy of Frederick Douglass are deeply rooted in American history. Douglass was engaged in civic education, civil liberty, reconstruction, and equal justice advocacy for all people. He was particularly focused on changing the dismal lives of Black Americans in servitude and bondage. Douglass experienced the injustice of excluding Black Americans from the freedoms expressed in the United States Constitution; and he fought without ceasing for Blacks to unequivocally embody the “we” in the Constitution’s We the People connotation of power for ALL American citizens.

The evolution of the Hip-Hop and Frederick Douglass abolitionist movement represents a call to action for justice and freedom. This action is critical now more than ever, as America’s 47th president has been elected. The action is non-negotiable rhetoric (just as it was during the times of Douglass) that will showcase the African-centered with a focus on the realities of the time, organizing, and a vision for the future of Black Americans. The dimensions represent powerful rhetorical assets that will lend to building and sustaining an equal justice movement for Blacks. Spreading “joy” with emphasis on “not going back” embodies the dimensions in action across centuries.

Hip-Hop is the most influential popular culture worldwide (Powell, 2000), and the Godfather of Hip-Hop and leader of the African Zulu Nation, Afrika Bambaataa, is credited for naming the culture (Bambaataa, 1992). It is a complex and layered cultural phenomenon that was born in the South Bronx, New York. Hip-Hop was started by urban Black and Latinx youth that were marginalized and lacking equity and resources in their community. Over the years, the culture has reached children, youth, and adults across racial, ethnic, political, sexual orientation, and economic boundaries. What began as an American youth culture is now a global culture that unites generations of diverse individuals unlike any other popular culture in world history.

The eras of Hip-Hop showcase contemporary and traditional elements and principles that prompted a call for freedom, rights, and privileges guaranteed for all American citizens. Deejaying, emceeing, b-boying and b-girling (breakdancing), graffiti, fashion and knowledge of self and community are the original Hip-Hop elements and peace, love, unity, and having fun are the culture’s founding principles. The elements and principles are rhetorical assets that have reached and touched the senses of audiences thereby stimulating proactivity in thought and action. Emceeing (speaking), graffiti (writing) and knowledge-of-self and community reign highest within the legacy of Frederick Douglass and have a direct alignment to the orality, expressive individualism, spirituality, and affect African-centered dimensions. These tools make for effective communication and are rhetorical symbolisms of purpose, power, and passion.

PURPOSE: Beginnings…Then and Now

The beginnings for Frederick Douglass and Hip-Hop led to their purpose-driven rhetoric. Douglass was born into slavery and lived on a plantation where he slept on dirt and clay floors that were cold and wet during winter months. He lived in poverty and only had what was provided by his master. Two shirts a year and one pair of trousers were the norm for enslaved adults, and shoes nor trousers were options for enslaved children. Douglass was often hungry, and the songs of the enslaved were prayers “to God for deliverance” (Douglass, 1845, p. 21). Frederick Douglass was plagued by environmental and social injustices, void of natural and legal rights for Black Americans. His beginnings (much of which never ended during his lifetime) tell the story of daily oppression, racial discrimination, and brutal whippings. “I have often been awakened at the dawn of day by the most heart-rending shrieks of an own aunt of mine, whom he used to tie up to a joist, and whip upon her naked back til she was literally covered with blood” (Douglass, 1845, pp. 15-16).

Hip-Hop emerged in comparable blight conditions. Poverty, brutal whippings by oppressors, white supremacy, Black nihilism, high unemployment rates, gang violence, drug abuse, lack of educational resources, and the depletion of social services were the norm. Youth cried out in pain and suffering. They wanted the country to acknowledge and rescue them from the injustices and tribulations that plagued their lives. They hoped for relief from what could be argued as 20th and 21st century slavery.

• Excessive dependence on what and whom they could not control,
• Restricted freedom and allowance, and the
• Lack of positive recognition, love, and appreciation.

Like Douglass during his time, Hip-Hop youth felt anguish, anxiety, and agony. The exploitation of Black Americans tormented Douglass to the point where had suicidal thoughts. He wrote, “I often find myself regretting my own existence and wishing myself dead” (p. 41). For the same reason, this thought has crossed the minds of many during Hip-Hop’s beginnings until now. A reoccurring response to trauma during both epochs is captured in the rhetorical and metaphorical truths evident in the lyrics of the 1982 Rap song by Grand Master Flash and the Furious Five called The Message.

The Message is Hip-Hop’s first politically and socially conscious protest rap.

Black Americans across centuries can be described as, in the language of civil rights activist and icon Fannie Lou Hamer (1964), sick and tired of being sick and tired. Hip-Hop’s elements and principles were used as therapy and reprieve from the conditions. They served as rhetorical medicines with affect dosages of positivity and hope. Similarly, the art of song and spirituality were used for the same purpose during slavery (Gates, 2021), as were the African-centered dimensions. These rhetorical tools remain the best options in the ongoing battle for eternal justice, equity, and impartiality for Black Americans. The beginnings, then and now, called Frederick Douglass and the Hip-Hop generation to abolitionist-minded action. Their purpose was clear, as was the belief that they had the power to influence change towards a true, for all people, democracy.

POWER: Abolitionists…Then & Now

There is power in the judicious, however uncompromising, use of rhetoric by abolitionists. A true abolitionist has, in the language of Malcolm X (1964), a by any means necessary African Zulu Nation fighting spirit. “To begin the work of abolitionist teaching and fighting for justice, the idea of mattering is essential in that you must matter enough to yourself, to your students [people] and to your students’ [peoples’] community to fight” (Love, 2019, p. 2). In other words, knowledge of self and community must matter. Frederick Douglass and American Hip-Hop icon Chuck D represent abolitionists then and now. I focus on Chuck D because of his iconic mainstay in Hip-Hop and his redefining of Hip-Hop messaging with a civil purpose. Public Enemy’s reign as rhetorical masters targeting Black Americans with abolitionist teachings (particularly during the late 1980s and 1990s) is also my reason for highlighting the group’s leader.

Douglass and Chuck D demonstrate prominence as skilled orators, writers, respected thought leaders, and leading spokespersons for freedom and racial equality. As abolitionists, the two had a clear message to, in the words of Chuck D and his rap group Public Enemy, Fight the Powers That Be. Their favor has always been the eradication of practices that perpetuate civil inequality. The African-centered dimensions breathe heavily here as Douglass and Chuck D represent the epitome of meaningful spirituality, harmony, orality, verve, and expressive individualism. Communalism also resonates as large audiences are known to have gathered and revered their carefully crafted and informed talks, speeches, and lyrical musical presentations – all of which glean the Black oratorical and rhetorical traditions essential for maximizing successes within the Black Power Movement.

Chuck D’s narrative in the 1991 Public Enemy song Can’t Truss It further makes the point of Frederick Douglass’ legacy in the eras of Hip-Hop. The Rap song, used as a rhetorical artistic expression, speaks to how today’s corporations practice principles of slavery towards Black workers. Involuntary and unexplainable labor requests, lack of equal pay, sexual harassment, and the presence of fear, aggression, and intimidation factors are highlighted in the Can’t Truss It lyrics and music video. Frederick Douglass “rapped” about some of these same inequities using written and oratory expressions. “The right to take my earnings, was the right of the robber [overseer],” notes Douglass (1855, p. 337).

Abolitionists focus on ending policies and practices that are not in the best interest of all people and that exclude – in this case – Black Americans. Chuck D, as did Frederick Douglass, always catered to the social, cultural, and political interests of Black people in his rhetoric. He believed in Hip-Hop’s ability to serve as Black America’s CNN. “Every time we checked for ourselves on the news, they were locking us up anyway, so the interpretation coming from Rap was a lot clearer. That’s why I call Rap the Black CNN” (Chuck D, 1997, p. 26). Hip-Hop presents American politics, social reform, education, and other related topics from a perspective and view that represents Black American lifestyles and concerns was his point. One could argue that in Frederick Douglass’ day, he was Black America’s CNN. His speech, The Meaning of July Fourth For the Negro (Douglass, 1852), was filled with rhetorical assets, and his invitation to speak provides an example of his regard for representing the sentiments of Black Americans.

In this speech, Douglass questions the application of political freedom and natural justice principles to the lives of Black Americans. He reported this “news,” via his speech, like a CNN reporter and from a Black perspective unlike any traditional media would have done during his time.

Douglass “rapped” all speeches with purpose, power, passion, and in truth. Chuck D, named the “Forefather of Hip-Hop,” and other socially, culturally, and politically conscious Hip-Hop artists (e.g., Common, J. Cole, Kendrick Lamar, Killer Mike, KRS-One, Nas, Queen Latifah, Rhapsody, Talib Kweli) communicate with the Douglass vigor, verve, and passion. Raps, music videos, speeches, interviews, concerts, books, social media posts, documentaries/films, panel discussions, and keynotes are their communication mediums for positive change via rhetorical messaging.

PASSION: Slave Narratives…Then & Now

The narratives told during the times of Frederick Douglass and in the eras of Hip-Hop are replete with prose and metaphors that passionately speak to The Souls of Black Folks (Dubois, 2016). During the 19th century, stories advocating for freedom and equity, and raising awareness about systemic injustices were predominately archived through written documents, and later in the century recorded and transcribed speech. Douglass spoke through his three autobiographies (Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, My Bondage and My Freedom, and Life and Times of Frederick Douglass), newspapers (The North Star, Frederick Douglass’ Weekly, North American Review, Frederick Douglass’ Paper, Douglass’ Monthly, The New National Era), journals, proposals, lectures, letters, and speeches. “His voice and pen were potent weapons used to defend the antislavery cause, earning Douglass tremendous fame and notoriety during the 19th century” (LeFlouria, 2009, p. 7). While he also used printing press technology, new-age technologies allow for Hip-Hop’s rhetoric and activism to be more far- reaching, curated, and archived. Twentieth and 21st century social media platforms (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X, YouTube), open AI [artificial intelligence], algorithms, blogs, films, podcasts, radio, television, video, and website platforms) are technology tools enabling the manifestation of Hip-Hop narratives reminiscent of the times of Douglass easily available.

Countless song titles in Hip-Hop, for example, read like the titles of slave narratives. The following chart highlights titles resembling tenets exemplified in Douglass’ rhetorical chronicles.

Final Thought

Hip-Hop artists’ that exude politically, culturally, and/or socially conscious rhetoric repeatedly connote that 400 years after the Transatlantic slave trade, 248 years after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and 236 years after the ratification of the Constitution of the United States, too many Black Americans continue to be enslaved. “Slavery is a part of the DNA of the United States,” notes historian Henry Louis Gates (Wakelee-Lynch, 2024). Hip-Hop illuminates’ ways that the purpose, power, and passions of Frederick Douglass to this end remain alive and relevant today.

Hip-Hop is enduring the work of Douglass. The culture has taken on the challenge because related mainstay issues abound (e.g., stories of Daunte Demetrius Wright, Sonya Massey, George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Rodney King, Trayvon Martin, Eric Gardner, Michael Brown, Sandra Bland, Freddie Gray, and Tamir Rice). Hip-Hop’s elements, principles, and African-centered dimensions are rhetorical tools that assist in effectively mainstreaming the importance of political and social reform, activism, and civic engagement for Black civil equality. The 19th century culture of Frederick Douglass and Hip-Hop culture’s 20th and 21st century timeline coexist in American society through the styles and mediums of rhetoric that flow on the continuum for Black freedom and justice. The gift of rhetorical skills is an anointing. Frederick Douglass was anointed and so is Hip-Hop culture. Both epitomize purpose, power, and passion. It is important that we take advantage of their gifts by reinforcing the wisdoms and rhetorical symbolisms of Frederick Douglass congruent with Hip-Hop to inform, motivate, and ultimately better the lives of Black people worldwide.

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